How the Meanings of Words Change

Stick around long enough and youll notice that language changes—whether you like it or not. Consider this recent report from columnist Martha Gill on the redefinition of the word literally: Its happened. Literally the most misused word in the language has officially changed definition. Now as well as meaning in a literal manner or sense; exactly: the driver took it literally when asked to go straight over the traffic circle, various dictionaries have added its other more recent usage. As Google puts it, literally can be used to acknowledge that something is not literally true but is used for emphasis or to express strong feeling. . . .Literally, you see, in its development from knock-kneed, single-purpose utterance, to swan-like dual-purpose term, has reached that awkward stage. It is neither one nor the other, and it cant do anything right.(Martha Gill, Have We Literally Broken the English Language? The Guardian [UK], August 13, 2013) Changes in word meanings (a process called semantic shift) happen for various reasons and in various ways. Four common types of change are broadening, narrowing, amelioration, and pejoration. (For more detailed discussions of these processes, click on the highlighted terms.) BroadeningAlso known as generalization or extension, broadening is the process by which a words meaning becomes more inclusive than an earlier meaning. In Old English, for instance, the word dog referred to just one particular breed, and thing meant a public assembly. In contemporary English, of course, dog can refer to many different breeds, and thing can refer to, well, anything.NarrowingThe opposite of broadening is narrowing (also called specialization or restriction), a type of semantic change in which a words meaning becomes less inclusive. For example, in Middle English, deer could refer to any animal, and girl could mean a young person of either sex. Today, those words have more specific meanings.AmeliorationAmelioration refers to the upgrading or rise in status of a words meaning. For example, meticulous once meant fearful or timid, and sensitive meant simply capable of using ones senses.PejorationMore common than amelioration is the downgrading or depreciation of a words me aning, a process called pejoration. The adjective silly, for instance, once meant blessed or innocent, officious meant hard working, and aggravate meant to increase the weight of something. Whats worth keeping in mind is that meanings dont change over night. Different meanings  of the same word often overlap, and new meanings can co-exist with older meanings for centuries. In linguistic terms, polysemy is the rule, not the exception. Words are by nature incurably fuzzy, says linguist Jean Aitchison in the book Language Change: Progress Or Decay. In  recent years, the adverb literally has become exceptionally fuzzy. In fact, it has slipped into the rare category of Janus words, joining terms like sanction, bolt, and fix that contain opposite or contradictory meanings. Martha Gill concludes that theres not much we can do about literally. The awkward stage that its going through may last for quite some time. It is a moot word, she says. We just have to leave it up in its bedroom for a while until it grows up a bit. More About Language Change The Endless Decline of the English LanguageThe Great Vowel ShiftInconceivable!: 5 Words That May Not Mean What You Think They MeanKey Dates in the History of the English LanguageSix Common Myths About LanguageSemantic Change and the Etymological Fallacy

Network Cabling Systems, Audiovisual Systems And Security...

When it comes to installation and support of network cabling systems, audiovisual systems and security systems; Team Linx is the business to consult with. Team Linx is part of Umbrella Company known as Jupiter Consolidated Groups, which enables Linx to offer office spaces their needs. Linx has been operating since 2003 and since they have blossomed into a sustainable organization. An organization such as Linx understands what it takes to succeed in the corporate world and remain successful. Linx understands without implementing change into the workplace a company is bound to regress. Even though Linx has been doing a great job at remaining profitable and also making necessary changes, the progress has not spread throughout all branches of†¦show more content†¦If the goal of the company is to expand then a feasible plan should be put into place that can benefit the company. After recognizing the problem the leadership of the company can now take time out to discuss the proble ms within the company and what opportunities are available. The main opportunity that is available at the time is that LInx has a functioning branch that can do residential and commercial work. However, Linx Virginian branch is only doing residential work, which means they are losing a lot of clients. Once Linx gains more commercial work expanding will seem more realistic. Once Linx has a since of urgency they can then being to gather key people that can put A plan together. It would be best to consult leadership and any key associates that already work at the Virginia branch. This step is known as forming a powerful guiding coalition (Weiss, 2012). The key associates in the Virginia branch will be perfect assets for the coalition because they already know the area. They also know the clientele and would most likely just need a extended offer of guidance from leadership within the Linx company. The leadership is important because the top-level officers that will involve in the new planning process have already done this before. The top-level officers have lead a company that stated out in a residential space and later moved to commercial. The leaders already have a set of guidelines that they can follow that

Effects of Illegal Immigrants in Malaysia - 782 Words

Effects Of Illegal Immigrants In Malaysia Illegal immigrants are people who migrate across national borders without complying with legal requirements. In â€Å"Illegal immigrants in Malaysia,† (2012), it has been found that in Malaysia, they comprise a portion of the country population, numbering as many as two millions by some estimates. Most of them are from nearby Southeast Asian countries such as Indonesia and Philippines. Hopkins (n.d.) acknowledged that 50 percent of illegal immigrants are people who arrive legally but then overstay their visas. Immigrants who crossed Malaysian borders illegally have contributed to the nation decline in economic, threatens social structure, and causes health problems among Malaysian citizen. According†¦show more content†¦They pay or owe an amount of money to syndicates that are responsible in smuggling them to be taken across Malaysian borders. As a result, these immigrants make money by selling drugs, running prostitution centers, and commit armed robberies. The activities run by them have created feeling of insecure towards citizens. Other than that, Gibson (2005) suggests that illegal immigrants caused devastating impact on health among Malaysian citizens. These immigrants had incurred high cost of health care system in Malaysia. This is because too much illegal immigrants who are sick or injured obtained free medical treatments in Malaysia due to our policy to treat any injured patients regardless of their background. On top of that, the cost of medical treatments obtained by them reflex Malaysian taxpayers to pay high tax. Besides that, Nazehan (2008) states that these immigrants are responsible in the spread of dangerous diseases especially sexually transmitted diseases (STD) like tuberculosis, hepatitis, HIV and even gonorrhea. For instance, the smuggling of women for the purpose of forced prostitution will lead to spread of HIV virus. As the consequence, it will increase the total of fatality as found by Nazehan (2008). The threats posed to our country by illegal immigrants are many. They bring poverty and taking jobs away from the poor citizens. It is evident that the presents of illegal immigrants in our nation do haveShow MoreRelatedTeam Based Incentive Rewards : Its Not All Roses5707 Words   |  23 Pagesof the better salaries and working condition in the manufacturing sector. Soon, the construction sector followed the suit. With this influx of the foreign workers, local apprentices shield away from this trade as they found working alongside these illegal workers not conducive. Further the trade was branded as 3D’s job that are Dirty, Dangerous and Demeaning. At about the same time, local skilled foreman and workers were lured overseas to countries such as Singapore, Taiwan and Japan where theyRead MoreThe Impact Of Immigration On Australia s Terms Of Society And Economy1092 Words   |  5 PagesIMMIGRATION Whether immigration might bring benefits to a country or not is a controversial topic. In recent years, many migrants have left their countries to look for a better life, especially in developed countries. It is believed that immigrants can have many negative effects on a country because of social disturbances. This essay will examine the impacts of immigration on Australia in terms of society and economy. It has been seen that society might be more plentiful when the country have more foreignersRead MoreDiscrimination Against Immigrant Labor Essay964 Words   |  4 Pageseconomic, cultural and social structure of both migrant-receiving and migrant-sending countries. Actually, the trend of temporary and permanent immigrants increasing in some western countries began to gain momentum in recent years. Organization for Economic Cooperation Development (OECD 2004) reports indicated that there were more than 1 million new immigrants in the United States in 2001 and 2002, increased by 25% from 2000; in some European countries including Austria, France and Switzerland, theRead MoreIssues of Foreign Workers Policy in Malaysia Manufacturing Industry3085 Words   |  13 PagesThe Star, we know that our Malaysia government had decided to recruit more foreign workers from India which around 45,000 people from India. This is to meet the demand by around 13 sectors which currently in shortage of w orkforce. So, this resulted in many people and The Malaysian Trades Union Congress (MTUC) had strongly opposed the decisions made by government. The Malaysian Trade Union Congress (MTUC) is said as the most representative workers’ organization in Malaysia. Three main objectives emphasizedRead MoreIs A Nation Is An Abstruse Procedure?1490 Words   |  6 PagesBorn and bred in Malaysia, I am proud to call myself a Malaysian national. My parents are Malaysians as well. However, my paternal grandparents identify themselves as Indian, while my maternal grandparents prefer to be referred to as Ceylonese (Sri Lankan) . Going back further, my ancestors would have identified themselves as Portuguese. We originate from the same bloodline, with similar heritage, almost identical ethnicity, and to a certain extent, common values, traditions and culture; yet, weRead MoreInternational Journal Of Academic Research In4751 Words   |  20 PagesJournal of Academic Research in Business and S ocial Sciences October 2012, Vol. 2, No. 10 ISSN: 2222-6990 The Impact of Employment of Foreign Workers: Local Employability and Trade Union Roles in Malaysia Ramesh Kumar Moona Haji Mohamed (PhD Candidate), School of Distance Education, 11800,Universiti Sains Malaysia Email: rameshk@utar.edu.my Charles Ramendran SPR Faculty of Business Finance, UTAR Email: charlesr@utar.edu.my Peter Yacob Faculty of Business Finance, UTAR Email: petery@utar.edu.my AbstractRead MoreU.s. Foreign Agricultural Production1492 Words   |  6 Pagesforeign agricultural production is bad for U.S. growers who struggle to get their sales prices above the cost of production. According to the USDA, the United States is the leader in global agriculture, from fostering economic growth to adapting effects of climate change and addressing food security. The Office of the Chief Scientist (OCS) coordinates USDA research, education and Extension with scientists and researchers across the federal government. In 2012, OCS continued focus on the ResearchRead MoreThe Work Ethics Of The United States, Malaysia, And Singapore2051 Words   |  9 Pagesof governance in the respective countries have far-reaching effects on ethical policies enacted in the country. In summary, intuitional, political, economic, religious, societal and philosophical notions influence the evolution and emergence of a business enterprise in any country. The interaction of these factors brings about the various similarities and differences in work ethics in different countries. Hence, the United States, Malaysia, and Singapore possess some similarities and differences inRead More The Populati on Problem Essay2973 Words   |  12 Pagescentury to 0.84% (Weiskel 40). Neo-Malthusians base their arguments on the teachings of Thomas Malthus. Of the Neo-Malthusians, Garrett Hardin is one of the most prominent and controversial. Hardins essays discuss the problem of overpopulation and the effects it will have on the future. In Lifeboat Ethics, he concludes that continuous increases in population will have disastrous outcomes. Neo-Malthusian arguments come under much scrutiny by those who believe that the population explosion is only a mythRead MoreCabinet System4287 Words   |  18 PagesCabinet system The  Cabinet of Malaysia  is the executive branch of  Malaysias government. Led by the  Prime Minister, the cabinet is a council of ministers who are accountable collectively to the  Parliament. According to the  Article 43  of the  Constitution, members of the Cabinet can only be selected from members of either houses of Parliament. Formally, the  Yang di-Pertuan Agong  appoints all Ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister, which he is obliged to follow.[1]According to  Article 43  of the  Constitution

Denton Welch Passage free essay sample

In this passage from Maiden Voyage, Denton Welch portrays a situation in which an adolescent’s rebelliousness has detrimental consequences. Through the use of various literary techniques, he seems to suggest that unfamiliarity with one’s surroundings can subsequently lead to horrifying events. With a deeper analysis of the extract, it can also be inferred that the author is showing the contrast between the orderliness of the developed world and the chaotic nature of the developing world. Characterization is significant in showing that the narrator’s rebelliousness led to the conflict. By immediately describing the narrator with phrases such as â€Å"They would never want to do what I wanted to do,† the boy is seen as stubborn, suggesting a possible reason why he â€Å"could stand it no longer† and left to explore the Chinese city. It is because of the fact that he has such a rebellious trait and disobeyed the warnings of others, that the reader suspects that something bad will happen to him. Foreshadowing plays an essential role in setting an ominous mood and creating suspense in the reader, to emphasize the terror that the narrator feels towards his new surroundings. The first line of the passage, â€Å"Foreigners are not very popular here,† informs the reader that the narrator is from abroad, and therefore has to be careful about going into the city. By disobeying orders to not â€Å"go out alone,† the reader once again expects that something might go wrong, but since it is written in such a subtle way, it does not take away the suspense which is built up over the course of the passage. Imagery further accentuates this feeling of possible catastrophe as the Welch’s vivid descriptions throughout the passage articulate the harshness of the land that surrounds the narrator. From the very beginning of the passage, the speaker’s reference to â€Å"a European villa and a line of poplars† which signifies order and beauty, seems to contrast with the Chinese city that lies outside. The author’s use of figurative language and diction, or very specific word choice, only makes every aspect of the setting even more dreadful. By describing the bushes as â€Å"stunted,† and saying that they â€Å"squeaked† and â€Å"grated,† the narrator’s environment is already portrayed in a negative light as all three of these words have negative connotations. The fact that Welch uses metaphors to compare grass to â€Å"harsh spears† and turrets to â€Å"ruined cottages,† shows once again that the surrounding seems threatening which might provoke conflict, and also that it is fairly decayed and worn out. The use of imagery is vital in creating suspense. By comparing the black speck to specific superstitious symbols such as â€Å"black cats,† it can be inferred that the horror is approaching. Furthermore, as the narrator gets closer and closer to the object, the author’s use of words such as â€Å"loathsome† and â€Å"angrily† to describe the flies (which are seen as highly unpleasant creatures that are attracted to nasty things), causes panic and extreme suspense to be built up in the reader, as these two words also have intensely negative connotations. Finally, by giving the â€Å"numbed senses† the human characteristic of waking up, the author uses personification to convey to the reader that the horror has finally arrived. Imagery does not only serve the purpose of foreshadowing that something bad is going to happen, but also conveys the reactions of the narrator. By using similes such as â€Å"odd white teeth stood up like ninepins in its dark, gaping mouth,† the reader is really able to imagine what the mouth must look like, by comparing it to a bowling alley with one pin missing; the gap in the teeth. By using metaphors such as â€Å"waves of sickness spread over me,† Welch is able to demonstrate the nausea that the narrator feels as well. Other literary devices such as irony and sentence structure also serve to convey the reactions of the narrator. The fact that his â€Å"eyes had to return to it whenever [he] looked away† serves to show the irony that something which is so horrifying can actually make you look at it longer. Furthermore, the fact that the sentence â€Å"Then I ran† is so short and abrupt seems to represent the narrator’s fear of the situation he is in. First-person narration plays a vital role in enabling the reader to know what the character is feeling. The fact that the entire passage is written in 1st person narration or that the narrator is telling his own story, gives the reader an insight into the emotions of the narrator. From the beginning of the passage when the narrator is upset that he cannot go outside, to the end where he is trying to climb up to the bastion, the author is constantly informing the reader as to what the narrator feels. When he refers to Sydenham as a place of order therefore, it is clear to the reader that there must be a personal connection between the narrator and the district of London. It is likely that he is from that town, and could not adjust to the environment of the Chinese city, which is so chaotic and disorderly, because he is used to an organized lifestyle. After seeing the human head, the narrator says, â€Å"I jumped back, my throat quite dry and my stomach churning. † If someone else had seen the event, he or she might tell you that the narrator jumped back, but it would be impossible to know that his throat was dry or his stomach was churning, and these are valuable details to know just how horrifying the head really was. At the end of the passage, when it states â€Å"I could only hear [the insects] buzzing and the slap of them when they hit the wall,† it once again shows the dramatic impact the event has had on the narrator as this is all he can seem to think about now. Finally, details such as the fact that the narrator began to feel desperate towards the end, could never have been known had the story not been told in first-person. By the end of the passage therefore, it seems as if the reader knows the character better, and can relate to what has happened to him. In conclusion, the elements of characterization, foreshadowing, imagery and narration, all serve to create a tense atmosphere in which the horrors of the event are really emphasized. After careful analysis, the fact that the author continuously portrays the harshness of the Chinese city, and tries to make the reader feel sympathy for the narrator, suggests that this passage is a form of criticism towards developing countries, or perhaps a personal experience that he is reflecting upon.

Loa Loa free essay sample

Loa Loa â€Å"African Eye worm† [pic] [pic] Loa Loa By Amanda Green Microbiology 210 Loa Loa is a parasite known more commonly as the â€Å"African Eye Worm†. This may be one of the most feared of the parasites. They are classified as filarial worms, meaning they thrive in human tissues. Before the 1920’s , Loa Loa infections occurred more frequently in the United States now it is more commonly found in West Africa and equatorial Sudan. It prefers areas with hot, wet climates, like swamps and rainforests. They are cylindrical and have a cuticle with three main outer layers. This protects the nematodes (larvae) so they can invade the digestive tracts of animals. The outer layers are non cellular. The adult Loa Loa is a thin small worms ranging in length from 20 – 70 mm long and 350 – 430 mm wide. Males are smaller than the females. Loa Loa was first described in 1770 by a French surgeon, Mongin. We will write a custom essay sample on Loa Loa or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He was the first surgeon to try to remove a worm from the eye of a woman in Santa Domingo. He was unsuccessful. Another observation came form a French ships surgeon, who observed an eye worm in slaves being taken to the West Indies from Africa in 1778. The first person to identify the microfilaria of Loa Loa in 1890 was Dr. Patrick Mason when he was invited to examine blood smears with Dr. Stephen Mackenzie. This person was thought to have â€Å"sleeping sickness of the Congo. † To reproduce the female produces a pheromone to attract males. After mating the female produces large numbers of active embryos called microfilaria. These microfilaria find their way to the blood stream where they can be transmitted through a bite to the next host. Loa Loa is an obligate endoparasite that feeds on fluids in the tissues of humans. The parasite contains pharyngeal glands and intestinal epithelium that produce digestive enzymes that enable them to feed on the hosts’ body fluids. Extracellular digestion begins within the lumen and is finished intracellularly. The adult parasite has been known to live up to 15 years. A human infected by Loa loa is termed Loiasis. People become infected by the transmission by deerflies. Once the deerfly lands on the host and bites, the larvae then drops into the opening of the skin and burrows into the subcutaneous tissues. The larvae then migrate through the body, commonly to the eye. They congregate in the lungs at night. Damage can be done to the eyes as it crawls through the cornea and conjunctive tissues. It can easily be seen and felt in the eye up to an hour. When they are deeper into the body they can cause encephalitis, if they reach the brain, which can lead to death. Joint pain can occur from swelling if the parasite stays near a joint for a period of time. The larva can remain unnoticed for months or years before becoming an adult, mating, and producing offspring. They continuously travel through deep and connective tissues, often even without the person feeling any sensation other than occasional itching. A person may feel the greatest discomfort when the worm slows or reaches a sensitive spot. It is then that the immune reaction starts, with localized redness and swelling called Calabar. This type of reaction is thought to be caused by a type of allergic reaction to dead worms and their byproducts. Skin eruptions and muscle pain may be evident. Once the worm dies the surrounding tissues may abscess. An accumulation of serous fluid in a sacculated cavity called hydrocele is a less common symptom. Colonic lesions, fibroblastic endocarditis, membranous glomerulonephritis, retinopathy, arthritis, and peripheral neuropathy can occur but are less common in people native to endemic areas. To diagnose Loasis, physicians look for Calabar swelling and the presence of worms in the conjunctiva. Those are the main tests used to diagnose an infestation. Some laboratory tests can help with the diagnosing including, C reactive protein, elevated eosinophils (called eosinophilia), and IgE quantification. Identification of microfilariae by microscopic examination is the most practical diagnostic test. The collection of the blood specimen is extremely important with the known periodicity of the microfilariae. The smear is stained with Giemsa or hematoxylin and eosin. Concentration techniques can be used for increased sensitivity, including centrifugation of the blood sample hemolyzed in 2% formalin. Checking for microfilaria in the blood on a newly suspected case is not recommended because it can take may years for them appear. Loa Loa is endemic only to parts of West Africa. A study done by S. Wanji at the University of Boea in Cameroon found that in 16 rural villages in southern Cameroon 2. 2% to 19. 23% of people were infected. It also showed that males are almost twice as likely to become infested as females. The level of infection increases from the ages of 15 to 65 years old and then drops. The treatment’s side effects for Loa Loa are more life-threatening than the actual infestation. Two of the most common treatments are diethylcarbamazine and ivermectin. Both of thes e treatments can cause encephalitis, coma, or death in people with high microfilaria loads. These drugs kill the microfilaria but not the adult worms. Other treatments include chemotherapy and surgical removal.

Movie Review The Childrens March

The Children’s March is a movie on an event that occurred way back in 1963 in Alabama, United States of America. Although the movie is not a real recording of the actual events that happened during that time, the core movie line presents a case scenario of real events that actually happened by use of real people. The latter witnessed events in the movie. Directed and produced by Bobby Houston and Robert Hudson, this movie was released before the close of 2004. It experienced a positive reception both in the box office and the general public.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Movie Review: The Children’s March specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A year later after its release, it was nominated for an Academy Award and won on the documentary category with massive support. This indicated that the movie received less negative criticism from the public. Indeed, this was a vivid indication of its suitability t o the entire target audience. On the morning of 2nd May 1963, the streets of Birmingham in Alabama witnessed a youthful revolutionary uprising of l children against local civil authorities. The children, fueled by rage and anger, stormed into town streets. The uprising was against conspicuous segregation that had been prevalent for years in the state. The civil authorities had been accused of open segregation leading to social inequity. These children were filled with a lot of courage and could not be intimidated by the reaction of the authorities. Armed with fire horses and packs of dogs, the police made serious anti-riot attempts in trying to stop the children from taking part in the demonstration. But in inexplicable ways, the children prevailed and proved to be anti-police racial-intimidation that had laid deep roots in the state against the community of the black people. This stunned even their parents in view of the fact that past attempts to make such demonstrations by adults had seriously failed. The children marched on and on and caused a stir to the authorities and the nation at large in the realization of the racial- plague that had rocked Alabama State for years. Local and national authorities had to make immediate reaction to the situation which led to the end of racial segregation against the blacks in the state. Forty years later, this brave story is told in form of a movie by Teaching Tolerance in collaboration with Tell the Truth Pictures, and the public reaction towards it proves extremely positive, judging from the award it won. This movie is uniquely a short documentary that runs for approximately forty minutes and is available in CD and DVD versions. It features various actors and other casts who facilitate the story. Screen casts include Dominique Alexis who stars as the major interviewed protestor, Rico Anderson plays the role of D.J Shelly, the ‘playboy’ of the movie. As evident in the movie, there is a police interrogator and this role is played by Josh Evans, Tony Otto plays the role of Birmingham chief police officer at that time. The role of the jail interrogator reenacting is mainly played by Mr. Sharp. Other casts include Hawk, who is mainly the protestor appearing on the news and the townsperson played by Jessica Joy.Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Besides the screen cast, there are background casts who help make the documentary and these include Geoffrey George who plays a major role in cinematography to make the story appear real while Don Davis plays a crucial role in the playing original music as the soundtracks of the movie. This film was initially short but then edited by mark Brewer in conjunction with Sean Keenan. Artistic features in the movies are made by Chris Moir while Erika McCauley is responsible for the make of the casts and their hair styles. Anthony Ellison plays a crucial role in the production management while special graphics and motion graphics are done by Steve Ellington. Although this movie was meant to appear natural with no graphic of other effects, there are visual effects that have been applied in the movie in order to make it depict the real situation that happed forty years after its production and these visual effects are made by Robert Grabendike. The costumes and the casts’ attires including their wardrobes are carefully chosen and selected by Jaclyn Tamitazo who played a role of the costume assistant. These are the special casts although there are numerous other casts that can not be listed here. It won an academy award in the Short Documentary category in 2005. From my personal perspective, I feel that the movie is very inspiring to the viewership. Unlike other movies that may take long time to follow and understand, The Children’s Match is quite interesting to watch. It is also thought-provoking and is quite suitable t o varied audience ranging from children to adults. Furthermore, it contains information from primary sources that include the people who are interviewed in the movie and this makes it more factual and thus connecting to the past and proves to be a tale of a true story. I suppose the movie is quite memorable to the target audience bearing in mind that it is action-packed with lots of lessons to learn. This essay on Movie Review: The Children’s March was written and submitted by user Kimber A. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

How Architect Louis Sullivan Influenced American Design

How Architect Louis Sullivan Influenced American Design Louis Henri Sullivan (born  September 3, 1856) is widely considered Americas first truly modern architect. Although born in Boston, Massachusetts, Sullivan is best known as a major player in what is known as the Chicago School and the birth of the modern skyscraper. He was an architect based in Chicago, Illinois, yet what many consider Sullivans most famous building is located in St. Louis, Missouri - the 1891 Wainwright Building, one of Americas most historic high-rise buildings.   Fast Facts: Louis Sullivan Born: September 3, 1856 in Boston, MassachusettsDied: April 14, 1924 in Chicago, IllinoisOccupation: ArchitectKnown for: Wainwright Building, 1891, in St. Louis, MO and his influential 1896 essay The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered. Louis is associated with the Art Nouveau movement and the Chicago School; he partnered with Dankmar Adler to form Adler and Sullivan, and he had a major influence on the career of Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959).Famous Quote: Form follows function.Fun Fact: The tripartite design of skyscrapers is known as Sullivanesque Style Instead of imitating historic styles, Sullivan created original forms and details. The ornamentation he designed for his big, boxy skyscrapers is often associated with the swirling, natural forms of the Art Nouveau movement. Older architectural styles were designed for buildings that were wide, but Sullivan was able to create aesthetic unity in buildings that were tall, concepts articulated in his most famous essay The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered. "Form Follows Function" Louis Sullivan believed that the exterior of a tall office building should reflect its interior functions. Ornamentation, where it was used, must be derived from nature, instead of from the Classical Greek and Roman architectural forms. New architecture demanded new traditions, as he reasoned in his most famous essay: It is the pervading law of all things organic, and inorganic, of all things physical and metaphysical, of all things human and all things super-human, of all true manifestations of the head, of the heart, of the soul, that the life is recognizable in its expression, that form ever follows function. This is the law. - 1896 The meaning of form follows function continues to be discussed and debated even today. Sullivanesque Style has come to be known as the tripartite design for tall buildings - three definitive exterior patterns for the three functions of a multiple-use skyscraper, with offices rising from commercial space and topped with the ventilating functions of attic space. A quick look at any tall building built during this time, from about 1890 to 1930, and youll see Sullivans influence on American architecture. Early Years The son of European immigrants, Sullivan grew up in an eventful time in American history. Although he was a very young child during the American Civil War, Sullivan was an impressionable 15-years-old when the Great Fire of 1871 burned down most of Chicago. At age 16 he began to study architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, near his home in Boston, but before completing his studies, he began his trek westward. He first got a job in 1873 Philadelphia with a decorated Civil War officer, the architect Frank Furness. Shortly thereafter, Sullivan was in Chicago, a draftsman for William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907), an architect who was devising new ways to construct fire-resistant, tall buildings framed with a new material called steel. Still a teenager when working for Jenney, Louis Sullivan was encouraged to spend a year at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris before beginning to practice architecture. After a year in France, Sullivan returned to Chicago in 1879, still a very young man, and began his long relationship with his future business partner, Dankmar Adler. The firm of Adler and Sullivan is one of the most important partnerships in American architectural history. Adler Sullivan Louis Sullivan partnered with engineer Dankmar Adler (1844-1900) from approximately 1881 until 1895. It is widely believed that Adler oversaw business and construction aspects of each project while Sullivans focus was on architectural design. Along with a young draftsman named Frank Lloyd Wright, the team realized many architecturally significant buildings. The firms first real success was the 1889 Auditorium Building in Chicago, a massive multi-use opera house whose exterior design was influenced by the Romanesque Revival work of architect H. H. Richardson and whose interiors were largely the work of Sullivans young draftsman, Frank Lloyd Wright. Auditorium Building, Chicago, Illinois, 1889. Angelo Hornak/Getty Images (cropped) It was in St. Louis, Missouri, however, where the tall building gained its own exterior design, a style that became known as Sullivanesque. In the 1891 Wainwright Building, one of Americas most historic skyscrapers, Sullivan extended the structural height with exterior visual demarcations using a three-part system of composition - the lower floors devoted to selling merchandise should look different from the offices on the middle floors, and the top attic floors should be set apart by their unique interior functions. This is to say that the form on the outside of a tall building should change as the function of what goes on inside a building changes. Professor Paul E. Sprague calls Sullivan the first architect anywhere to give aesthetic unity to the tall building. Building on the firms successes, the Chicago Stock Exchange building in 1894 and the 1896 Guaranty Building in Buffalo, New York soon followed. After Wright went on his own in 1893 and after Adlers death in 1900, Sullivan was left to his own devices and is well-known today for a series of banks he designed in the midwest - the  1908 National Farmers Bank (Sullivans Arch) in Owatonna, Minnesota; the  1914 Merchants National Bank in Grinnell, Iowa; and the 1918 Peoples Federal Savings Loan in Sidney, Ohio. Residential architecture like the 1910 Bradley House in Wisconsin blurs the design line between Sullivan and his protege Frank Lloyd Wright. Wright and Sullivan Frank Lloyd Wright worked for Adler Sullivan from about 1887 to 1893. After the firms success with the Auditorium building, Wright played a larger role in the smaller, residential business. This is where Wright learned architecture. Adler Sullivan was the firm where the famous Prairie Style house was developed. The best-known mingling of architectural minds can be found in the 1890 Charnley-Norwood House, a vacation cottage in Ocean Springs, Mississippi. Built for Sullivans friend, Chicago lumber entrepreneur James Charnley, it was designed by both Sullivan and Wright. With that success, Charnley asked the pair to design his Chicago residence, today known as the Charnley-Persky house. The 1892 James Charnley house in Chicago is a grand extension of what began in Mississippi - grand masonry subtly adorned, unlike the fancy French, Chà ¢teauesque style Biltmore Estate that Gilded Age architect Richard Morris Hunt was building at the time. Sullivan and Wright were inventing a new ty pe of residence, the modern American home. Louis Sullivan gave America the skyscraper as an organic modern work of art, Wright has said. While Americas architects were stumbling at its height, piling one thing on top of another, foolishly denying it, Louis Sullivan seized its height as its characteristic feature and made it sing; a new thing under the sun! Van Allen Building, Designed by Louis H. Sullivan, 1913, Clinton, Iowa. Carol M. Highsmith/Buyenlarge/Getty Images (cropped) Sullivans designs often used masonry walls with terra cotta designs. Intertwining vines and leaves combined with crisp geometric shapes, as displayed in the terra cotta detailing of the Guaranty Building. This Sullivanesque style was imitated by other architects, and Sullivans later work formed the foundation for many of the ideas of his student, Frank Lloyd Wright. Sullivans personal life unraveled as he got older. As Wrights stardom ascended, Sullivans notoriety declined, and he died virtually penniless and alone on April 14, 1924 in Chicago. One of the worlds greatest architects, said Wright, he gave us again the ideal of a great architecture that informed all the great architectures of the world. Sources Frank Lloyd Wright On Architecture: Selected Writings (1894-1940), Frederick Gutheim, ed., Grossets Universal Library, 1941, p. 88Adler and Sullivan by Paul E. Sprague, Master Builders, Diane Maddex, ed., Preservation Press, Wiley, 1985, p. 106Additional Photo Credits: Terra Cotta Detail, Lonely Planet/Getty Images; Guaranty Building, Reading Tom on flickr.com, Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0); Biltmore Estate, George Rose/Getty Images (cropped)